What is critical reading
Study guide
Critical reading is an important precursor tocritical writing. This Study Guide explains whycritical
reading is important, and gives some
ideas about how you might become a
more critical reader. Other Study
Guides you may find useful are What is critical
writing?Using paragraphs and The art of editing.
What is critical reading?
The most
characteristic features of critical
reading are that you will:
- examine the evidence or arguments presented;
- check out any influences on the evidence or arguments;
- check out the limitations of study design or focus;
- examine the interpretations made; and
- decideto what extent you are prepared to accept the authors’ arguments, opinions, or conclusions.
Whydoweneedto take a critical approach to reading?
Regardless
of how objective, technical, or scientific the subject matter, the author(s) will
have made many decisions during the
research and writing process, and each
of these decisions is a potential topic
for examination and debate, rather
than for blind acceptance.
You
needtobe prepared to step into
the academic debate and to make your
own evaluation of how much you are willing
to accept what you read.
A
practical starting point therefore, is to consider anything you read not as fact, but as the
argument of the writer. Taking this
starting point you will be ready to
engage incritical reading.
Critical reading does not have tobe all negative
The
aim of critical reading is not to find
fault, but to assess the strength of
the evidence and the argument. It is just as useful to conclude that a study, or an article,
presents very strong evidence and a well-reasoned
argument, as it is to identify the
studies or articles that are weak.
Evidence
Depending on the kind of writing it is, and the discipline in
which it sits, different kinds of
evidence will be presented for you to examine.
At
the technical and scientific end of the spectrum, relevant evidence may include information
on: measurements, timing, equipment,
control of extraneous factors, and
careful following of standard procedures.
Specific guidance will be available
within specialties on what to look for.
At
the other end of the spectrum is writing
where there is clearer scope for personal interpretation,
for example:
- analysis of individuals’ experiences of healthcare;
- the translation of a text from a foreign language; or
- the identification and analysis of a range of themes in a novel.
In these cases the
evidence may include items such as
quotes from interviews, extracts of
text, and diagrams showing how themes
might connect.
The
nature of the evidence presented at these two extremes is different, but in both cases you needto look for the rationale for the
selection and interpretation of the
evidence presented, and the rationale for the construction of the argument.
Broadening the definition of evidence
This
Study Guide takes a broad view of evidence: it maintains
that all that you read can be
considered as evidence, not purely the actual data collected/presented. This
encompasses:
- the report of the context within which the data were collected or created;
- the choice of the method for data collection or selection;
- the audit trail for the analysis of the data i.e.: the decisions made and the steps in the analysis process;
- the rationale for the interpretations made and the conclusions drawn;
- the relevance of, and the use made of the theoretical perspective, ideology, or philosophy that is underpinning the argument.
Linking evidence to argument
On
its own, evidence cannot contribute to
academic debate. The interpretation
and presentation of that evidence within
an argument allows the evidence to
make a contribution.
The
term ‘argument’ in this context means
the carefully constructed rationale for the enquiry, and for the place of its
results within the academic arena. It
will explain for example:
- why the authors considered that what they did was worth doing;
- why it was worth doing in that particular way;
- why the data collected, or the material selected, were the most appropriate;
- how the conclusions drawn link to the wider context of their enquiry.
Even
in the most technical and scientific
disciplines, the presentation of
argument will always involve elements
that can be examined and questioned. For example, you could
ask:
- Why did the writer select that particular topic of enquiry in the first place?
- Why did the writer decide to use that particular methodology, choose that specific method, and conduct the work in that way?
- Why did the writer select that particular process of analysis?
Note taking
As
you read, it can be helpful to use a table to record the information that you know you will need later. In addition to the usual bibliographical details, you
can devise your own list of extra information
you want to collect at the initial reading stage. Some suggestions are given below.
Two
important points about using such tables are:
- it is essential that you devise your own list of information to collect from each source, based on what you know you will needto comment upon; and
- realistically, it is probably best not to try to collect this information from every single source you use, only from those you decide to refer toin your report or assignment. Otherwise it could really slow down your background reading, and result in the collection of a mass of material that you never use.
Descriptive details you may want to record about sources
|
Setting
|
Type
of data
|
|
Sample
size
|
Use
of theory
|
|
Sample
profile
|
Equipment
|
|
Follow
up
|
Style
of writing
|
|
Statistics
used
|
Measurements
|
|
Methods
|
Sources
of bias
|
|
Questions
raised
|
Limitations
|
|
Main arguments
|
Intended
audience
|
Some interpretative questions you may needto ask about sources
These
are questions that need more input from you as the critical reader. You will needto make judgements about your answers, and will needto record the reasons for your answers. This list is a mix of arts and
science-based questions, as there are several areas of common interest.
- How well-developed are the themes or arguments?
- Did the theoretical perspective used introduce any potential bias?
- Are you convinced by the interpretations presented?
- Are the conclusions supported firmly by the preceding argument?
- How appropriate are the comparisons that are used?
- Did the response options, or measurement categories or techniques used affect the data that were collected?
- Have any ethical considerations been adequately addressed?
If
you take a critical approach right
from the start of your reading and
note taking, it can save a lot of time
later on. When you come to write your
assignment or thesis, you will needto
comment on the validity of the writing
that you refer to. So, if you have
kept a systematic record of the results of your critical reading, you will be able to
refer to it easily. If you have not,
you will find yourself wasting a lot of time re-reading material, and re-reviewing the evidence presented.
Helpful guidance from other sources
There
are many sources of guidance on how to
engage incritical reading: some are in books on general study skills; others are
on the internet. Chapter 10 of the
‘Study Skills Handbook’ by Stella Cottrell (2003) Basingstoke:
Palgrave Macmillan, is particularly recommended. The following questions are based on material from
that chapter:
- Does the writing assume a causal connection when there may not be one?
- Are general conclusions drawn based on only a few examples?
- Are inappropriate comparisons being made?
- Might there be other explanations apart from the one proposed?
- Are there any hidden assumptions that needtobe questioned?
- Is enough evidence presented to allow readers to draw their own conclusions?
- Does the line of reasoning make sense?
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What is critical thinking?
Critical thinking is the central intellectual skill that a
tertiary education seeks to develop in students. It involves taking an attitude
of reflective skepticismtowards what we read and what people tell us.
“Reflective” means thinking seriously about what we have
read or heard; “skepticism” means not taking it for granted that what we
have read or heard is true or correct. Instead, we seek to evaluate or assess
the validity of the information and opinions we encounter.
NOTE: “critical” in this context
does not just mean looking for mistakes and weaknesses. It means judging
what is good and what is not in the reading, and why. Critical evaluation is a
higher order intellectual skill, and can therefore be a demanding intellectual
task. One of the purposes of a university education is to develop your capacity
to do this, and it does take time.
What is critical reading?
Sometimes we read just for pleasure or entertainment; sometimes we
read just toobtain information, taking it for granted that the information is
reliable. Critical readingmeans analysing and evaluating what we read – to
repeat, working out what is goodand what is not, and why.Understanding the
argument in a text is essential to critical evaluation – we cannotevaluate
something we do not understand. We then seek to identify the strengths and
weaknesses or limitations in the author’s argument and evidence,
and to challenge anyassumptions that the author might have made.We need to keep
in mind that we are evaluating an author’s ideas in the context of aspecific
discipline. There are variations among disciplines as to what
constitutesevidence and how it might be used to support an argument. For
example, approachesand assumptions used in medical research might not be
appropriate in a history orsociology paper, and vice-versa.The following pages
suggest a number of questions that may help you to develop acritical evaluation
of what you read.
- 2 -
1.
Putting the text into context
Find out anything you can about the author – who she/he is,
what else she/he haspublished, what work she/he does. The gender and cultural
background of the authormay have a bearing on the author’s perspective.
Some of this information can begained from the foreword, introduction or the
back of a book, or at the bottom corner ofthe first page of an article most
academics these dayshave their own webpage, describing their work and listing
their publications.This information may give you some indication of the
author’s purpose, theaudience(s) she/he typically writes for, who
she/he typically collaborates with inresearch, her/his ideological
orientation or conceptual framework.It is important to note the date
of publication of a text. The historical context in whicha text is written
can influence the author’s thinking and preoccupations, and the datecan tell
you how up-to-date the material in the text is.Thecontext in which an
article has been published is relevant to your evaluation aswell. In a book
that is a collection of articles on a particular topic, the editors’introduction
usually provides a very useful summary of each article and the
overalltheoretical and research context of the volume. You will learn that in
each disciplinesome journals are considered particularly important, and
particular journals are oftenassociated with particular theoretical approaches.
2. Reading the text
You should begin to critically evaluate as you preview material,
and as you read, but it isalso useful to critically review the text as a whole
after you have finished reading it. Thefollowing questions will help you
undertake your critical evaluation of a text.As you read a section of a book or
article, look for information to help you answer thefollowing questions
The author’s purpose
• Why has the author written the material? Are these purposes explicitly
stated? Arethere other implicit purposes?
• For whom is the material intended?
The author’s approach
• What theoretical perspective has the author taken? How does this
perspective relateto other material in the field?
• What are the author’s underlying assumptions? Are these
explicitly stated?
• Is there any evidence of covert or overt bias in the
interpretation of material or in thechoice of sources and information?
(Emotional language can be a clue to this.)
Content
• Is the writer simply presenting information, or is she/he
presenting an argument?
- 3 -
• If an argument, what is the writer’s thesis – i.e., the
statement or proposition thatshe/he is arguing to support?
• How does the author develop the thesis from one point to
another?
• What evidence, examples or explanations are used to support the
thesis?
• Are the supporting evidence, examples and explanations well
researched and
accurate?
• Which aspects of the topic has the author chosen to concentrate
on? Which aspectshas the author not included or discussed?
• Is the material comprehensive and accurate, or is the subject
treated superficially?
• Are there alternative explanations for the material or data
presented? Has the authoraddressed these alternative explanations?
• Does any graphic or quantitative material illustrate or restate
the written content?
• If there are any visual images, how are they linked with the
written text?
• How do the contents relate to what you know about the topic?
• Which of your own questions about the subject does the author
answer? Which arenot answered?
• Do any items puzzle or intrigue you?
Structure
• Is a clear, logical framework used to organise the material?
• How does the author introduce the argument?
• Are the main points organised, linked and balanced?
• How is the supporting material organised and developed within
the framework?
• Does the author recapitulate what has been said at appropriate
points?
Style and format
• In what style has the material been written? For example, is it
formal or informal,simple or complex, descriptive or critical, didactic or
persuasive, narrative oranalytical?
• How does the style and format influence your own reaction to the
material?
These questions will help you critique or evaluate a text at quite
a detailed level ofanalysis. Not all of them will be relevant to all your
reading; you need to keep yourpurpose in mind. Nevertheless, reading for
lectures, tutorials and essays always requiressome level of critical
analysis. Answering the questions on the author’s approach andthe questions
dealing with content should provide a good understanding of what the
textcontributes to the topic.
Research articles
Research articles are typically structured in a particular way
(Introduction, Method,Results, Discussion). In addition to the questions on the
author’s approach, you willneed to ask the following questions when evaluating
them:
• What were the authors trying to discover?
• Why is the research important?
- 4 -
• What information is given about the sample (the people or
materials selected
for study)?
• Were appropriate methods used for data collection and analysis?
• What was measured?
• What were the results?
• What do the authors conclude?
• Can you accept the findings as true?
• Can you apply the findings to your own work?
• What if different studies have contradictory results?
3. Developing your own view
Your own life experiences can help you think about the validity of
an argument or pointof view. Does it make sense in terms of your own
experience? Does it, perhaps, makeyou question your own assumptions and
prejudices?
In developing your own thinking in relation to a text, you will
draw upon ideas presentedin lectures and from other texts that you have read.
These offer points of view that youcan use to help you evaluate the
text.Comparing authors with different points of view on the same topic can also
help you toidentify their ideological framework and their inherent assumptions.
Can theassumptions each author makes be challenged? Why and how are these
writersinterpreting the same events, data or evidence differently?If you are
having difficulty identifying the argument and/or finding things to say
aboutthe text, try discussing the text with friends, with fellow students in
tutorials and with
anyone else who might be interested. Discussion can generate ideas
and help you clarifyyour thinking. Finally, if you enjoy a good argument, you
should explore the wealth ofmaterial in the resources listed below.
The
most characteristic features of critical reading are that you will:
1. examine the evidence or arguments presented;
2. check out any influences on the evidence or
arguments;
3. check out the limitations of study design or focus;
4. examine the interpretations made; and
5. decide to what extent you are prepared to accept
the authors' arguments, opinions, or conclusions.
Regardless of how objective, technical, or scientific the subject
matter, the author(s) will have made many decisions during the research and
writing process, and each of these decisions is a potential topic for
examination and debate, rather than for blind acceptance.
You need to be prepared to step into the academic debate and to make
your own evaluation of how much you are willing to accept what you read.
A practical starting point therefore, is to consider anything you
read not as fact, but as the argument of the writer. Taking this starting point
you will be ready to engage in critical reading.
Critical reading does not have to be all negative
The aim of critical reading is not to find fault, but to assess the
strength of the evidence and the argument. It is just as useful to conclude
that a study, or an article, presents very strong evidence and a well-reasoned
argument, as it is to identify the studies or articles that are weak.
Evidence
Depending
on the kind of writing it is, and the discipline in which it sits, different
kinds of evidence will be presented for you to examine.
Broadening the definition of evidence
This
Study Guide takes a broad view of evidence: it maintains that all that you read
can be considered as evidence, not purely the actual data collected/presented.
This encompasses:
1. the report of the context within which the data
were collected or created;
2. the choice of the method for data collection or
selection;
3. the audit trail for the analysis of the data i.e.:
the decisions made and the steps in the analysis process;
4. the rationale for the interpretations made and the
conclusions drawn;
5. the relevance of, and the use made of the
theoretical perspective, ideology, or philosophy that is underpinning the
argument.
At
the technical and scientific end of the spectrum, relevant evidence may include
information on: measurements, timing, equipment, control of extraneous factors,
and careful following of standard procedures. Specific guidance will be
available within specialties on what to look for.
At
the other end of the spectrum is writing where there is clearer scope for
personal interpretation, for example:
1. analysis of individuals' experiences of healthcare;
2. the translation of a text from a foreign language;
or
3. the identification and analysis of a range of
themes in a novel.
In
these cases the evidence may include items such as quotes from interviews,
extracts of text, and diagrams showing how themes might connect.
The
nature of the evidence presented at these two extremes is different, but in
both cases you need to look for the rationale for the selection and
interpretation of the evidence presented, and the rationale for the construction
of the argument.
Linking evidence to argument
On
its own, evidence cannot contribute to academic debate. The interpretation and
presentation of that evidence within an argument allows the evidence to make a
contribution.
The
term 'argument' in this context means the carefully constructed rationale for
the enquiry, and for the place of its results within the academic arena. It
will explain for example:
1. why the authors considered that what they did was
worth doing;
2. why it was worth doing in that particular way;
3. why the data collected, or the material selected,
were the most appropriate;
4. how the conclusions drawn link to the wider context
of their enquiry.
Even
in the most technical and scientific disciplines, the presentation of argument
will always involve elements that can be examined and questioned. For example,
you could ask:
1. Why did the writer select that particular topic of
enquiry in the first place?
2. Why did the writer decide to use that particular
methodology, choose that specific method, and conduct the work in that way?
3. Why did the writer select that particular process
of analysis?
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